Archaeology and Landscape in the Altai Mountains of Mongolia

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Three standing stones and at least one fallen stone, in broken frame. Bronze Age. Right bank Khar Yamaa above confluence with Oigor Gol. View northwest.

Massive standing stones are typically located at the juncture of two valleys, or on high points commanding views to the east or south, or over rivers. The stones may be single or in groups of two or more arranged in rows from north to south and set within rectangular frames. Small circles on the east side of their frames indicate that the direction east held a particular importance. The actual function of the stones is uncertain. Most were probably raised during the Bronze Age. Tamga can be found on some massive standing stones.

Three standing stones and at least one fallen stone, in broken frame. Bronze Age. Right bank Khar Yamaa above confluence with Oigor Gol. View northwest. Massive standing stones are typically located at the juncture of two valleys, or on high points commanding views to the east or south, or over rivers. The stones may be single or in groups of two or more arranged in rows from north to south and set within rectangular frames. <Small circles on the east side of their frames indicate that the direction east held a particular importance. The actual function of the stones is uncertain. Most were probably raised during the Bronze Age. Tamga can be found on some massive standing stones.

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Two standing stones within intact frame. South stone: ht. 1.11 m; north stone: ht. 1.08 m. Bronze Age. North bank Chigirtein Nuur. View west.

Massive standing stones are typically located at the juncture of two valleys, or on high points commanding views to the east or south, or over rivers. The stones may be single or in groups of two or more arranged in rows from north to south and set within rectangular frames. Small circles on the east side of their frames indicate that the direction east held a particular importance. The actual function of the stones is uncertain. Most were probably raised during the Bronze Age. Tamga can be found on some massive standing stones.

Two standing stones within intact frame. South stone: ht. 1.11 m; north stone: ht. 1.08 m. Bronze Age. North bank Chigirtein Nuur. View west.Massive standing stones are typically located at the juncture of two valleys, or on high points commanding views to the east or south, or over rivers. The stones may be single or in groups of two or more arranged in rows from north to south and set within rectangular frames. <Small circles on the east side of their frames indicate that the direction east held a particular importance. The actual function of the stones is uncertain. Most were probably raised during the Bronze Age. Tamga can be found on some massive standing stones.

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Standing stone in broken frame; tamga pecked into stone's north side. Stone ht. approximately 1.75 m. Bronze Age. Upper Tsagaan Gol. View southeast.

Massive standing stones are typically located at the juncture of two valleys, or on high points commanding views to the east or south, or over rivers. The stones may be single or in groups of two or more arranged in rows from north to south and set within rectangular frames. Small circles on the east side of their frames indicate that the direction east held a particular importance. The actual function of the stones is uncertain. Most were probably raised during the Bronze Age. Tamga can be found on some massive standing stones.

Standing stone in broken frame; tamga pecked into stone's north side. Stone ht. approximately 1.75 m. Bronze Age. Upper Tsagaan Gol. View southeast.Massive standing stones are typically located at the juncture of two valleys, or on high points commanding views to the east or south, or over rivers. The stones may be single or in groups of two or more arranged in rows from north to south and set within rectangular frames. <Small circles on the east side of their frames indicate that the direction east held a particular importance. The actual function of the stones is uncertain. Most were probably raised during the Bronze Age. Tamga can be found on some massive standing stones.

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Deer stone of Sayan type with inverted images, ht. 2.32 m, and smaller stones. Late Bronze Age. Terrace south of Aral Tolgoi. View west.

Deer stones are large standing stones carved with a variety of distinctive elements. The classical Mongolian deer stone is marked by images of stylized, elongated deer on its wide sides. There may also be disks pecked into either of its wide sides and a line of beads (necklace) at its neck. Deer stones of the Sayan type may be marked with more realistic images of horses and ibex, and with belts, weapons, and shields. Those of the Altai type are simpler, with only necklaces, earrings, and slashes across the upper east side to indicate a face. Like massive standing stones, deer stones may be raised individually or set into north–south rows. On rare occasions, deer stones appear within a row of balbal associated with Early Nomadic burials. Their high narrow faces are almost always oriented to the east. The function of deer stones remains unclear but their anthropomorphic reference is certainly significant. Deer stones can be dated to the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages.

Deer stone of Sayan type with inverted images, ht. 2.32 m, and smaller stones. Late Bronze Age. Terrace south of Aral Tolgoi. View west.Deer stones are large standing stones carved with a variety of distinctive elements. The classical Mongolian deer stone is marked by images of stylized, elongated deer on its wide sides. There may also be disks pecked into either of its wide sides and a line of beads (necklace) at its neck. Deer stones of the Sayan type may be marked with more realistic images of horses and ibex, and with belts, weapons, and shields. Those of the Altai type are simpler, with only necklaces, earrings, and slashes across the upper east side to indicate a face. Like massive standing stones, deer stones may be raised individually or set into north–south rows. On rare occasions, deer stones appear within a row of balbal associated with Early Nomadic burials. Their high narrow faces are almost always oriented to the east. The function of deer stones remains unclear but their anthropomorphic reference is certainly significant. Deer stones can be dated to the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages.

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Deer stone of Sayan or Altai type: necklace and belt; parallel slashes and horse on east side; earring and hanging hammer on south side. Ht. 1.1 m. Late Bronze Age. East shore Dayan Nuur. View of south side of stone.

Deer stones are large standing stones carved with a variety of distinctive elements. The classical Mongolian deer stone is marked by images of stylized, elongated deer on its wide sides. There may also be disks pecked into either of its wide sides and a line of beads (necklace) at its neck. Deer stones of the Sayan type may be marked with more realistic images of horses and ibex, and with belts, weapons, and shields. Those of the Altai type are simpler, with only necklaces, earrings, and slashes across the upper east side to indicate a face. Like massive standing stones, deer stones may be raised individually or set into north–south rows. On rare occasions, deer stones appear within a row of balbal associated with Early Nomadic burials. Their high narrow faces are almost always oriented to the east. The function of deer stones remains unclear but their anthropomorphic reference is certainly significant. Deer stones can be dated to the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages.

Deer stone of Sayan or Altai type: necklace and belt; parallel slashes and horse on east side; earring and hanging hammer on south side. Ht. 1.1 m. Late Bronze Age. East shore Dayan Nuur. View of south side of stone.Deer stones are large standing stones carved with a variety of distinctive elements. The classical Mongolian deer stone is marked by images of stylized, elongated deer on its wide sides. There may also be disks pecked into either of its wide sides and a line of beads (necklace) at its neck. Deer stones of the Sayan type may be marked with more realistic images of horses and ibex, and with belts, weapons, and shields. Those of the Altai type are simpler, with only necklaces, earrings, and slashes across the upper east side to indicate a face. Like massive standing stones, deer stones may be raised individually or set into north–south rows. On rare occasions, deer stones appear within a row of balbal associated with Early Nomadic burials. Their high narrow faces are almost always oriented to the east. The function of deer stones remains unclear but their anthropomorphic reference is certainly significant. Deer stones can be dated to the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages.

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Deer stones within large group of standing and fallen stones, khirigsuur, and circular altars. Late Bronze Age. Tsagaan Asgat. View to south.

Deer stones are large standing stones carved with a variety of distinctive elements. The classical Mongolian deer stone is marked by images of stylized, elongated deer on its wide sides. There may also be disks pecked into either of its wide sides and a line of beads (necklace) at its neck. Deer stones of the Sayan type may be marked with more realistic images of horses and ibex, and with belts, weapons, and shields. Those of the Altai type are simpler, with only necklaces, earrings, and slashes across the upper east side to indicate a face. Like massive standing stones, deer stones may be raised individually or set into north–south rows. On rare occasions, deer stones appear within a row of balbal associated with Early Nomadic burials. Their high narrow faces are almost always oriented to the east. The function of deer stones remains unclear but their anthropomorphic reference is certainly significant. Deer stones can be dated to the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages.

Deer stones within large group of standing and fallen stones, khirigsuur, and circular altars. Late Bronze Age. Tsagaan Asgat. View to south.Deer stones are large standing stones carved with a variety of distinctive elements. The classical Mongolian deer stone is marked by images of stylized, elongated deer on its wide sides. There may also be disks pecked into either of its wide sides and a line of beads (necklace) at its neck. Deer stones of the Sayan type may be marked with more realistic images of horses and ibex, and with belts, weapons, and shields. Those of the Altai type are simpler, with only necklaces, earrings, and slashes across the upper east side to indicate a face. Like massive standing stones, deer stones may be raised individually or set into north–south rows. On rare occasions, deer stones appear within a row of balbal associated with Early Nomadic burials. Their high narrow faces are almost always oriented to the east. The function of deer stones remains unclear but their anthropomorphic reference is certainly significant. Deer stones can be dated to the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages.

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Image stone carved with face and four stylized stags, boar, and implements hanging from its belt. Ht. 2.15 m. The stone is known as the Tsar or Khan and the boulder against which it leans is known as the Khan's Stone. Late Bronze Age. Upper Sagsay Gol. View of the stone's north face.

Within mountainous Bayan Ölgiy, there are only four or five documented standing stones with human faces from the pre-Turkic period, and of these three are also deer stones. In two cases the stones are oriented to the east; a third faces the north, a fourth has fallen, and the fifth faces south. These image stones date from the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages. Their clear human appearance may shed light on the essential anthropomorphic reference of the massive standing stones.

Image stone carved with face and four stylized stags, boar, and implements hanging from its belt. Ht. 2.15 m. The stone is known as the Tsar or Khan and the boulder against which it leans is known as the Khan's Stone. Late Bronze Age. Upper Sagsay Gol. View of the stone's north face. Within mountainous Bayan Ölgiy, there are only four or five documented standing stones with human faces from the pre-Turkic period, and of these three are also deer stones. In two cases the stones are oriented to the east; a third faces the north, a fourth has fallen, and the fifth faces south. These image stones date from the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages. Their clear human appearance may shed light on the essential anthropomorphic reference of the massive standing stones.

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Image stone with carved face, within broken frame in secluded valley. Late Bronze Age. Upper Sogoo Gol Valley.

Within mountainous Bayan Ölgiy, there are only four or five documented standing stones with human faces from the pre-Turkic period, and of these three are also deer stones. In two cases the stones are oriented to the east; a third faces the north, a fourth has fallen, and the fifth faces south. These image stones date from the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages. Their clear human appearance may shed light on the essential anthropomorphic reference of the massive standing stones.

Image stone with carved face, within broken frame in secluded valley. Late Bronze Age. Upper Sogoo Gol Valley. Within mountainous Bayan Ölgiy, there are only four or five documented standing stones with human faces from the pre-Turkic period, and of these three are also deer stones. In two cases the stones are oriented to the east; a third faces the north, a fourth has fallen, and the fifth faces south. These image stones date from the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages. Their clear human appearance may shed light on the essential anthropomorphic reference of the massive standing stones.

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Light grey image stone and blue deer stone with earring and stylized deer images, both set within a round khirigsuur. Grey stone: ht. 2.05 m; blue stone: ht. 2.10 m. Late Bronze Age. Right bank Lower Tsagaan Gol. View north.

Within mountainous Bayan Ölgiy, there are only four or five documented standing stones with human faces from the pre-Turkic period, and of these three are also deer stones. In two cases the stones are oriented to the east; a third faces the north, a fourth has fallen, and the fifth faces south. These image stones date from the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages. Their clear human appearance may shed light on the essential anthropomorphic reference of the massive standing stones.

Light grey image stone and blue deer stone with earring and stylized deer images, both set within a round khirigsuur. Grey stone: ht. 2.05 m; blue stone: ht. 2.10 m. Late Bronze Age. Right bank Lower Tsagaan Gol. View north. Within mountainous Bayan Ölgiy, there are only four or five documented standing stones with human faces from the pre-Turkic period, and of these three are also deer stones. In two cases the stones are oriented to the east; a third faces the north, a fourth has fallen, and the fifth faces south. These image stones date from the Late Bronze or Early Iron Ages. Their clear human appearance may shed light on the essential anthropomorphic reference of the massive standing stones.

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Image stone, fallen and propped up beside its enclosure. Ht. .94 m; enclosure 3.5 x 3.5 m. Turkic period. South bank Khurgan Nuur. Image should be facing east.

Turkic image stones are of varying size and refinement, ranging from stones that are barely carved to images of clear human reference. Within the Mongolian Altai, the images are always male. In the more finished cases, the image is represented wearing a belted jacket; his right hand holds a cup in front of his chest, his left hand clasps his belt or a hanging weapon. Facial features may be shown as well as a mustache, small beard, and earrings. Images of the Turkic period stand on the east side of an enclosure or within it, facing east. Images from the late Turkic or Uighur period are never associated with enclosures. They wear long robes and clasp a vessel with both hands in front of their chests. Whichever their style, Turkic image stones appear to be memorial in function, but the individuals they memorialize are unknown. They are rarely associated with any obvious burials.

Image stone, fallen and propped up beside its enclosure. Ht. .94 m; enclosure 3.5 x 3.5 m. Turkic period. South bank Khurgan Nuur. Image should be facing east.Turkic image stones are of varying size and refinement, ranging from stones that are barely carved to images of clear human reference. Within the Mongolian Altai, the images are always male. In the more finished cases, the image is represented wearing a belted jacket; his right hand holds a cup in front of his chest, his left hand clasps his belt or a hanging weapon. Facial features may be shown as well as a mustache, small beard, and earrings. Images of the Turkic period stand on the east side of an enclosure or within it, facing east. Images from the late Turkic or Uighur period are never associated with enclosures. They wear long robes and clasp a vessel with both hands in front of their chests. Whichever their style, Turkic image stones appear to be memorial in function, but the individuals they memorialize are unknown. They are rarely associated with any obvious burials.

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Image stone with carved face, ht. .65 m. This is one of two simple images on the east side of an enclosure 20 x 2 m. Turkic period. On high terrace south of Sumdairagiin Gol. View west.

Turkic image stones are of varying size and refinement, ranging from stones that are barely carved to images of clear human reference. Within the Mongolian Altai, the images are always male. In the more finished cases, the image is represented wearing a belted jacket; his right hand holds a cup in front of his chest, his left hand clasps his belt or a hanging weapon. Facial features may be shown as well as a mustache, small beard, and earrings. Images of the Turkic period stand on the east side of an enclosure or within it, facing east. Images from the late Turkic or Uighur period are never associated with enclosures. They wear long robes and clasp a vessel with both hands in front of their chests. Whichever their style, Turkic image stones appear to be memorial in function, but the individuals they memorialize are unknown. They are rarely associated with any obvious burials.

Image stone with carved face, ht. .65 m. This is one of two simple images on the east side of an enclosure 20 x 2 m. Turkic period. On high terrace south of Sumdairagiin Gol. View west.Turkic image stones are of varying size and refinement, ranging from stones that are barely carved to images of clear human reference. Within the Mongolian Altai, the images are always male. In the more finished cases, the image is represented wearing a belted jacket; his right hand holds a cup in front of his chest, his left hand clasps his belt or a hanging weapon. Facial features may be shown as well as a mustache, small beard, and earrings. Images of the Turkic period stand on the east side of an enclosure or within it, facing east. Images from the late Turkic or Uighur period are never associated with enclosures. They wear long robes and clasp a vessel with both hands in front of their chests. Whichever their style, Turkic image stones appear to be memorial in function, but the individuals they memorialize are unknown. They are rarely associated with any obvious burials.

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Image stone, one of four in front of four enclosures with two long lines of balbal. Ht. 1.12 m. Turkic period. South shore Khurgan Nuur. View northwest.

Turkic image stones are of varying size and refinement, ranging from stones that are barely carved to images of clear human reference. Within the Mongolian Altai, the images are always male. In the more finished cases, the image is represented wearing a belted jacket; his right hand holds a cup in front of his chest, his left hand clasps his belt or a hanging weapon. Facial features may be shown as well as a mustache, small beard, and earrings. Images of the Turkic period stand on the east side of an enclosure or within it, facing east. Images from the late Turkic or Uighur period are never associated with enclosures. They wear long robes and clasp a vessel with both hands in front of their chests. Whichever their style, Turkic image stones appear to be memorial in function, but the individuals they memorialize are unknown. They are rarely associated with any obvious burials.

Image stone, one of four in front of four enclosures with two long lines of balbal. Ht. 1.12 m. Turkic period. South shore Khurgan Nuur. View northwest.Turkic image stones are of varying size and refinement, ranging from stones that are barely carved to images of clear human reference. Within the Mongolian Altai, the images are always male. In the more finished cases, the image is represented wearing a belted jacket; his right hand holds a cup in front of his chest, his left hand clasps his belt or a hanging weapon. Facial features may be shown as well as a mustache, small beard, and earrings. Images of the Turkic period stand on the east side of an enclosure or within it, facing east. Images from the late Turkic or Uighur period are never associated with enclosures. They wear long robes and clasp a vessel with both hands in front of their chests. Whichever their style, Turkic image stones appear to be memorial in function, but the individuals they memorialize are unknown. They are rarely associated with any obvious burials.

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Two enclosures with false image stone, ht. .62 m. Turkic period. Left bank Khargantyn Gol. View northwest.

False image stones are simple, un-carved, or barely carved vertical stones placed in the same way as true Turkic image stones on the east side of or within a Turkic enclosure. Their function was certainly similar to that of the true Turkic images; that is, they referred to specific deceased individuals.

Two enclosures with false image stone, ht. .62 m. Turkic period. Left bank Khargantyn Gol. View northwest.False image stones are simple, un-carved, or barely carved vertical stones placed in the same way as true Turkic image stones on the east side of or within a Turkic enclosure. Their function was certainly similar to that of the true Turkic images; that is, they referred to specific deceased individuals.

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Enclosure with centrally placed false image stone, ht. .88 m. Turkic period. Right bank Khovd Gol above confluence with Turegtiin Gol. View southwest.

False image stones are simple, un-carved, or barely carved vertical stones placed in the same way as true Turkic image stones on the east side of or within a Turkic enclosure. Their function was certainly similar to that of the true Turkic images; that is, they referred to specific deceased individuals.

Enclosure with centrally placed false image stone, ht. .88 m. Turkic period. Right bank Khovd Gol above confluence with Turegtiin Gol. View southwest.False image stones are simple, un—carved, or barely carved vertical stones placed in the same way as true Turkic image stones on the east side of or within a Turkic enclosure. Their function was certainly similar to that of the true Turkic images; that is, they referred to specific deceased individuals.

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Two of four enclosures, centrally placed false image stones. Turkic period. Right bank Khovd Gol. View east down Khovd toward valley of Sogoo Gol.

False image stones are simple, un-carved, or barely carved vertical stones placed in the same way as true Turkic image stones on the east side of or within a Turkic enclosure. Their function was certainly similar to that of the true Turkic images; that is, they referred to specific deceased individuals.

Two of four enclosures, centrally placed false image stones. Turkic period. Right bank Khovd Gol. View east down Khovd toward valley of Sogoo Gol.False image stones are simple, un—carved, or barely carved vertical stones placed in the same way as true Turkic image stones on the east side of or within a Turkic enclosure. Their function was certainly similar to that of the true Turkic images; that is, they referred to specific deceased individuals.

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Balbal, one of three east of three burial mounds. This balbal has the shape and carvings of a deer stone, with inverted stags on the south side, two horses on the east side, and another stag on the north side. Early Nomadic period. North shore Khurgan Nuur. View of south and east sides of stone.

Balbal are stones of varying size set up in rows running from west to east on the east side of an Early Nomadic period burial mound or on the east side of a Turkic enclosure. Balbal of the Early Nomadic period may be relatively large; their shapes often recall those of deer stones and in at least two cases, a deer stone is used as a balbal. Balbal of the Turkic period are usually smaller and more numerous: in some cases they may stretch for more than 200 m to the east. There is no certainty about the meaning of these stones, but they may refer either to the followers of the person being memorialized or, according to some authorities, to the number of adversaries killed by that person.

Balbal, one of three east of three burial mounds. This balbal has the shape and carvings of a deer stone, with inverted stags on the south side, two horses on the east side, and another stag on the north side. Early Nomadic period. North shore Khurgan Nuur. View of south and east sides of stone.Balbal are stones of varying size set up in rows running from west to east on the east side of an Early Nomadic period burial mound or on the east side of a Turkic enclosure. Balbal of the Early Nomadic period may be relatively large; their shapes often recall those of deer stones and in at least two cases, a deer stone is used as a balbal. Balbal of the Turkic period are usually smaller and more numerous: in some cases they may stretch for more than 200 m to the east. There is no certainty about the meaning of these stones, but they may refer either to the followers of the person being memorialized or, according to some authorities, to the number of adversaries killed by that person.

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Balbal east of burial mounds. Early Nomadic period. Maikhan Tolgoi, right bank Godon Gol. View northwest.

Balbal are stones of varying size set up in rows running from west to east on the east side of an Early Nomadic period burial mound or on the east side of a Turkic enclosure. Balbal of the Early Nomadic period may be relatively large; their shapes often recall those of deer stones and in at least two cases, a deer stone is used as a balbal. Balbal of the Turkic period are usually smaller and more numerous: in some cases they may stretch for more than 200 m to the east. There is no certainty about the meaning of these stones, but they may refer either to the followers of the person being memorialized or, according to some authorities, to the number of adversaries killed by that person.

Balbal east of burial mounds. Early Nomadic period. Maikhan Tolgoi, right bank Godon Gol. View northwest.Balbal are stones of varying size set up in rows running from west to east on the east side of an Early Nomadic period burial mound or on the east side of a Turkic enclosure. Balbal of the Early Nomadic period may be relatively large; their shapes often recall those of deer stones and in at least two cases, a deer stone is used as a balbal. Balbal of the Turkic period are usually smaller and more numerous: in some cases they may stretch for more than 200 m to the east. There is no certainty about the meaning of these stones, but they may refer either to the followers of the person being memorialized or, according to some authorities, to the number of adversaries killed by that person.

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Two ruined enclosures and two lines of balbal extending 199 m. Turkic period. Mogoityn Gol drainage. View east.

Balbal are stones of varying size set up in rows running from west to east on the east side of an Early Nomadic period burial mound or on the east side of a Turkic enclosure. Balbal of the Early Nomadic period may be relatively large; their shapes often recall those of deer stones and in at least two cases, a deer stone is used as a balbal. Balbal of the Turkic period are usually smaller and more numerous: in some cases they may stretch for more than 200 m to the east. There is no certainty about the meaning of these stones, but they may refer either to the followers of the person being memorialized or, according to some authorities, to the number of adversaries killed by that person.

Two ruined enclosures and two lines of balbal extending 199 m. Turkic period. Mogoityn Gol drainage. View east.Balbal are stones of varying size set up in rows running from west to east on the east side of an Early Nomadic period burial mound or on the east side of a Turkic enclosure. Balbal of the Early Nomadic period may be relatively large; their shapes often recall those of deer stones and in at least two cases, a deer stone is used as a balbal. Balbal of the Turkic period are usually smaller and more numerous: in some cases they may stretch for more than 200 m to the east. There is no certainty about the meaning of these stones, but they may refer either to the followers of the person being memorialized or, according to some authorities, to the number of adversaries killed by that person.

Standing Stones